Abstract
We take the first step in the development of a new field of research with the aim of merging urban exaptation processes and resilience science, while facing COVID19 pandemic here considered as a symptom of a broader environmental crisis. This involves the understanding of the meaning of exaptation of urban infrastructures as defined by Stephen Jay Gould. We briefly describe the fields of resilience science and exaptation processes embedded in socio-ecological systems. Drawing on a selected set of propositions in both fields, we put exaptation processes in the context of the adaptive renewal cycle, a dynamic framework model used in resilience science to capture the dynamics of complex adaptive systems, of which urban systems are prime examples. We discuss the insights generated in this endeavour, dealing with some key exaptation aspects in relation to four key attributes of resilience, i.e., “change,” “diversity,” “self-organization,” and “learning.” Taking Mexico as a case study, we selected ten examples to illustrate and relate these to the infrastructure exaptation of building functions such as theatres, convention centres, parking lots and/or racecourses into hospitals as a strategy to cope with the COVID19 patients, with special attention paid to the “backloop phase” of the adaptive renewal cycle. The paper elaborates a taxonomy of building infrastructure that given its design features allow to be used as hospitals to face the pandemic. We conclude by postulating ways in which resilience thinking could contribute to the development of a new research frontier for addressing designs for resilient urban social-ecological systems facing external disturbances such as pandemic, and end by proposing three strategic areas of research in such a field.
Keywords: resilience thinking, urban exaptation, COVID19, Mexico
This paper explores a new field of research, utilising the concept of exaptation borrowed from evolutionary theories applied to the urban landscape while exploring its contribution to urban health. The current manuscript uses a resilient thinking approach as a conceptual framework while taking the repercussions in the health system service of the pandemic situation in Mexico as a robust example. To do so, the first section of the article gives a general overview about the worldwide context regarding the COVID-19 outbreak. The second section explains the resilient thinking approach focused on the view of the city as a complex adaptive system, highlighting the crucial role of infrastructure facilities such as hospitals as the means to increase resilience. The third part illustrates the concept of exaptation and how it emerges within the urban system increasing the city’s resilience. The fourth section details the case study. The manuscript concludes postulating alternative manners in which resilience thinking contributes to the development of a new research frontier for addressing designs for resilient urban social-ecological systems facing external disturbances such as pandemic.
An overview of the outbreak 2020
In December 2019, the COVID19 outbreak started in Wuhan, China. By January 2020 WHO declared it officially a pandemic. Despite the efforts three months later, the illness has now been reported on every continent except Antarctica. By the end of April 2020, the total number of cases worldwide surpassed 3.12 million and the death toll surpassed 217,000. This global threat affected countries like no other did before, having repercussions in their entire economy, supply chains, population’s mobility and even national elections, causing several systemic disturbances with immediate and lasting consequences such as social unrest and the collapse of health services. Each country took different strategies in order to contain the spreading of the disease. During the period March-May 2020, conditions of lockdown and the response of the communities varies accross climatic, cultural and political context from each country. For instance, in Italy and Spain severe lockdown modalities and the control of public spaces were implemented by institutions and law enforcement agencies (Jones, 2020), contrasting with the laissez-faire orientation of Northern countries, like UK and Sweden (Edwards, 2020). These measuraments repspond to the nature of COVID19 which is extremelly contagious. The World Helath Organisation (World Health Organisation, 2020) places the R0 of COVID-19 at between 2 and 2.5– a number it considers “relatively high”. Furthermore, although analogies are very disputable we could do a rough comparison with other epidemic infectious. Chiolero, Cullati and Flahault (2020) sumarises “Covid-19 CFR is certainly lower than for Ebola (25% to 90%) (World Health Organization, 2020), smallpox (up to 30%) (John Hopkins University Center for Health Security, 2020), or 2002/03 SARS (up to 17% among symptomatic) (Wu et al., 2020) and lower than for influenza during the “Spanish” pandemic (2 to 3% among infected) (Bautista et al., 2010; Qualls et al., 2017). It is probably higher than for measles in high-income countries as well as influenza during seasonal epidemics (both <0.1% among symptomatic)”. Thus, COVID19 seems to be highly contagious and lethal. Because of this many governments took serious steps in order to avoid the collapse of health intitutions due to potential increasing exponential numbers of covid19 patients. For instance, in a matter of days the Chinese government built a hospital in Wuhan with the sole purpose to treat covid19 patients, increasing the city’s hospital capacity up to 1500 beds (BBC, 2020). However, not all countries have the resources, human capital or even technology to implement the same strategy such as the case of Mexico.
The analysis of the pandemic context and its global disturbing effects regarding many dimensions of contemporary life, highlight very clearly the failure of the city's infrastructure system to respond in a resilient way to an unexpected and extensive crisis. Based on these considerations, therefore, in the next paragraph we will try to explore the literature on the theme of urban resilience and then impotize how it can be appropriately activated in circumstances similar to the current one.Understanding Urban Resilience
Cities are the filter through which human kind experience nature (Pickett, Cadenasso and McGrath, 2013). Pickett, Cadenasso and McGrath (2013) define resilience as the ability of a system to experience internally and externally generated shocks and perturbations but still adjust to the changes that result. “Resilience is the tool by which urban systems can attempt to achieve sustainability” (Pickett, Cadenasso and McGrath, 2013, p. 1). The latter implies the city as space continuum embedded with constant interaction between people and the urban environment. Merriam-Webster dictionary (2020) defines system as “a regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified whole”, while The Oxford English Dictionary (2020) as “An organized or connected group of things”. Thus, we could also describe the public space as a system in which people interact with the urban environment through activities.
The Stockholm Resilience Centre (2014) defines resilience as the capacity of a system (either an individual, ecosystem, organisation or even a city) to deal with change and continue to develop. The analysis of socio-ecological landscape is an emerging discourse under the urban resilience umbrella, assuming that cities are complex adaptive systems that could be improved through a toolbox resilience principles (Marcus and Colding, 2014). There are seven principles, four of them related to how systems are managed, while the remaining three concern systems properties (also processes) that enhance resilience. These three principles are a) managing slow variables, b) maintaining diversity, and c) managing connectivity. Such principles also apply to the public space and they guide our analysis.
First, complex adapting systems could exist in a wide range of configurations, depending on small number of small variables. Such variables do not respond to fix time scales, rather they change slower than other (Biggs et al., 2015). When these variables change usually is due to an external disturbance, over which the system has little influence. For instance, changes on the built environment, transforming the design and materiality of spaces. Secondly, connectivity refers to the strength and structure of interactions between system components. This principle is a relationship that is not straightforward (Nyström and Folke, 2001) and could facilitate system reorganisation after disturbance, but also the spread of the disturbance (Biggs et al., 2011). Therefore this condition involves balance between fragmentation and over-connection in order to enhance resilience. For example, poor management or strict regulations over the use of facilities could hinder its use or the contrary. Lastly, diversity is an essential attribute to increase resilience in any complex system (Yamagata and Maruyama, 2016), spreading risk, enabling buffers and opening up multiple strategies from which authorities could learn when there are high-uncertainty situations (Samuelsson, Colding and Barthel, 2019). It works as a backup, playing an essential role in the reorganisation and recovering processes of a system that has been disturbed. For instance, in terms of architecture there are certain building design and configurations that allow more flexibility of uses, giving the possibility to host a wider range of activities (Bentley et al., 1985).While at the urban level, the street as infrastructure and public space is probably the most resilient public space due to the number of activities and functions it can host (Jacobs, 1961; Choay, 2001; Mehta, 2013; Lara-Hernandez, 2019) Such, possibilities which in many times were never envisioned before is what precedes a term known in evolutionary theories as exaptation. Much of the current literature on health facilities and infrastructure pays particular attention to how the city could increase resilience to withstand disturbance and disasters such as flooding (Norazam, 2018), earthquakes (McDaniels et al., 2008) and even water infrastructure (Hosseini and Barker, 2016). Nevertheless, there are no previous studies looking at the swift of different building type functions into hospitals in the context of a pandemic under a resilience thinking approach.
As we can observe from the literature considered and from the case studies, the concept of disturbance, in resilience, is largely attributable to unpredictable environmental effects and which are therefore perceived, precisely, as disturbing elements, compared to a scenario constructed through a deterministic interpretation of planning. Determinism as a priority, if not the only mechanism, of predicting a scenario has been widely questioned in the biology of evolution, and then thanks to its heuristic value, the fields of technology, computer science and linguistics have greatly benefitted by these studies. Therefore in the next paragraph we will try to discuss the resilient response capacity of an urban infrastructure from an alternative point of view to that of determinism, represented by the evolutionary mechanism of exaptation which will then be explained.
Exaptation
Adaptation is a term coined earlier than Darwinian revolution being considered the feature of a trait which is useful for the individual involved in the struggle for existence, and at the same time as a process of differential survival members of a biological population. Functional adaptation has been the essential concept in the study of human evolution (Pievani and Serrelli, 2011). Palaeontologist Stephen J. Gould and Elizabeth S. Vrba (1982) proposed the neologism “ex-aptation” referring to the “aptus” from a pre-existing, evolved structure or form to address two main mechanism: 1) functional shift (the re-use by natural selection of a structure with previously different purposes; 2) functional cooptation from non-adaptation (exaptation as Pievani refers). In vernacular terms the meanings of the word adaptation refer to historical processes of creation or change for specific functions. Thus, “adaptation” has been designed particularly for the performed task.
Similar results could arise by different historical routes. A good example of exaptation are the early dinosaurs with feathers, which many authors such as Ostrom (1974) and Bakker (1975) argue that the initial development of feathers was due to insulation and not necessarily for flying. Gould and Vrba (1982) detail an precise example through the Black Heron. Such bird uses her wings (like most birds) to fly, but also it uses them to catch fish, utilising her wings by stretching them out and forward. It forms like an umbrella, casting a shadow on the water, which allow her to see the prey (McLachlan and Liversidge, 1978). IN this context we have a sequential set of adaptations, each of them converted to an exaptation of different effect that precedes the subsequent adaptation. A major evolutionary transformation emerges from this interplay, which could not have arisen by merely adaptation processes. Thus, the basic feathers arrangement is an adaptation in response to thermoregulation, and later, an exaptation for catching the prey. Large contour feathers and their arrangement in the arm arise as an adaptation for catching the prey and become exaptation for flying. Finally, the wing per se is an exaptation in its current effect on shading, similarly to the feathers covering arose from a different adaptive contexts but giving wider evolutionary flexibility for other uses during the evolution of birds.
In evolution forms does not necessarily follows function. That’s the reason why the current function of a structure cannot be used as a default explanation of the past origin and evolutionary history of that structure (Pievani and Serrelli, 2011).
“Strange though this might seem, [exaptation] actually reflects a general pattern in evolutionary history. I have already noted that, in evolution, form must precede function and that innovation itself cannot be driven by natural selection. Any novelty has to arise spontaneously as an exaptation, a structure existing independently of any new function for which it might later be co- opted” (Tattersall, 2004, p. 25).
An exaptation is a structure existing independently of any new function for which it might later be coopted. Tattersall proposed exaptation as the mechanism for the origin of modern human behaviour: current physical abilities of sapiens seem to have been originated in conjunction with the emergence of anatomically modern humans around 200 000 – 150 000 years ago. They remained hidden until some other mechanism activated them; among the possible examples could be cultural stimulus (as a main factor) triggering development of abstractive and symbolic thinking. Thus, new behavioural and cognitive modals in modern humans seems to have arisen as exaptation.
Exaptation in architecture
Regarding taxonomies of architecture, design is defined as something which means a functional determinism, although this determinism focuses on the functional swift of existing structures made and developed for different uses. For instance, La Casa de los Pinos used to be the Mexican Presidential House which was coopted as a museum in the late 2018 and because of the current pandemic it has become a shelter for doctors and nurses working in Mexico City. This mentioned transformations modalities which were consciously made (determinism) are commonly referred to them as regeneration, restoration, conservation, preservation and functional adaptation. The latter depends on the geographical and historical context of the specific architectural discipline (Carbonara, 1997). Moreover, several forms of functional co-optation in architecture remain excluded from this presumed interpretation of determinism. For example, the phenomena of temporary appropriation of public space, which contributes to the resilience of the neighbourhoods, concern the uses of space not planned in any conventional design (Lara-Hernandez and Melis, 2018). According to the studies on temporary appropriation of public space, the expansion towards unexpected uses, logically, increases the possibility of ‘survival’" (‘life cycle’ in architecture) of those places, whilst the lengthening of this cycle is an essential condition to reduce the environmental impacts that are at the origin of the current environmental crisis (Curran, 2016).
The significance of these phenomena is due to the evident similarity with the mechanism of natural selection, which might help in understanding how to redefine radically the paradigms of design in times of climate change and ecological disruption. Natural selection never operates ex nihilo and does not produce new structures from zero, but by modifying the existing material, including the historical constraints it contains (Pievani & Serreli, 2011). Thus, exaptation shows us that every structure has an intrinsic transformative potential.
As highlighted in the introduction, the negative effects of the limited resilience of urban systems designed in a deterministic way, have an immediate and devastating impact on public health. It follows that the health infrastructure system is the one from which to start to implement urban resilience, through the mechanisms of exaptation.
The high technological content of this type of infrastructure and its immediate repercussions on the physiology of the human body make the heuristic potential of the comparison between planning and the biology of evolution through exaptation even more relevant.
NATIONAL HEALTH SERVICES ENHANCEMENT STRATEGY in mexico
In every country the health systems’ capacity have been challenged in terms of infrastructure, technology and labour resources. For instance, by late March, Spain registered more than 33 thousand COVID-19 cases, leading to the collapse of hospitals due to the overwhelming number of patients (Redacción, 2020e). In such scenario many doctors faced the difficult choice to make, deciding between patients who needed to be intubated the most (Jiménez, 2020). Thus, leaving many others die. The very same dramatic situation happened in Italy too (Beall, 2020). Most health facilities were not designed, constructed and developed with a vision to stand potential disasters, including a pandemic of such magnitude like COVID-19.
Because, the outbreak hit first China, then Europe and later the USA, the Mexican government had a bit more time to get prepared for it. The adequate built environment design and a well-trained and prepared staff are two important elements in ensuring that health services remain accessible and functioning to operate with optimum capacity during the critical times. Knowing that public institutions lacks of both to a certain degree the authorities proposed and developed two main strategies to counter back this situation. The first called Plan de Reconversion Hospitalaria (Plan of Hospitals’ reconversion) was set to enhance hospitals’ capacity though increasing the areas devoted to COVID-19 patients. This reconversion followed strict rules established in the national guideline Lineamiento General de Reconversion Hospitalaria (Gobierno de México: Secretaría de Salud, 2020). It had five phases, which by the end of it could supplied 2,342 beds for critic status patients and more than 5059 adaptable beds for ventilators (Rodriguez-Calva, 2020). The Sub-Secretary of the Ministry of Health Dr- Lopez-Gatell (Rodriguez-Delgado, 2020) explained that during the first phase the hospitals with necessary infrastructure and equipment were re-organised and re-arranged to take care of COVID-19 patients. During the second phase, already programmed surgeries which were not essentially needed could be postponed when it does not compromise patient’s health. During the third phase, the physical expansion of hospitals took place, increasing capacity and specialised equipment were provided. The fourth phase was an agreement between the government and private health institutions called Juntos contra el COVID-19. The public institutions that provide social security in Mexico are the National Institute of Social Security (IMSS), Institute for Social Security and Services for State Workers (ISSSTE), The Institute of Health for Welfare (INSABI) The Mexican Secretariat of National Defense (SEDENA) and the Mexican Secretariat of the Navy. Such agreement allowed private hospitals to release 3115 beds for patients with diseases other than COVID-19, giving the possibility to people with social security to get private caring. Additionally, Mexican government through the different public health institutions designated existing hospitals only for COVID-19 treatment (see Table 1). The fifth and last phase contemplated the use of infrastructure which was not initially designed to treat patients such as hotels, gyms, stadiums and even convention centres. Overall, these strategies increased the urban resilience by an adequate management of the slow variables and increasing diversity under unexpected circumstances such as an outbreak.
Table 1: Hospitals dedicated exclusively for COVID-19 treatment.
Public Institution
National Health Secretariat
IMSS
ISSSTE
Hospital’s name
Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Respiratorias
Estado de México: Hospital General de Zona de Atlacomulco
Centro Médico Nacional “20 de noviembre”
Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán
Hidalgo: Hospital General de Subzona no. 33 de Tizayuca
Hospital General Dr. Darío Fernández Fierro
Hospital General de México Hospital Juárez de México
Chiapas: Hospital General de Zona No. 1 de Tapachula
Nayarit:
Hospital Regional 1ero. de octubre
Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez
Nayarit: Hospital de Bahía de Banderas (pendiente de inauguración)
Hospital Regional Ignacio Zaragoza Hospital
Hospital General Dr. Manuel Gea González
Para el área metropolitana: Hospital General de Zona. No. 32 Villa Coapa
Hospital General José María Morelos y Pavón
Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad Ixtapaluca Hospital
Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI
Centro
Hospital General Tacuba Hospital
Hospital Regional de Tlalnepantla
Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente en Guadalajara, Jalisco
Centro
Hospital General Dr. Fernando Quiroz
Centro Médico ISSEMyM Toluca
Centro Médico Nacional Noreste en Monterrey, Nuevo León
Hospital Regional Tipo B de Alta Especialidad Bicentenario de la Independencia
Centro Médico Nacional La Raza, con su Hospital de Infectología
The next section will explain the fifth phase in more detail.
From city infraestructure to hospitals
Mexico is a federal presidential representative democratic republic conformed by 32 independent states. Although the Federation has certain inherence over the whole country each of the states has freedom of governance. Nine of the states such as Colima, Chiapas, CDMX, Edo. Mexico, Jalisco, Nuevo Leon, San Luis Potosi, Veracruz and Yucatan used using existing infrastructure turning them into hospitals. A total of 2736 covid-19 treatment beds were implemented thanks to this strategy, incrementing hospitals capacity by 13.5% up to 23,025 beds in the whole country (FS, 2020). Table 2 illustrates the state, the name and the previous building type before they were used as hospitals. Regarding building type, the vast majority of the now hospitals corresponded to the corporate events and exhibitions with 61%, followed by sports with 18% and multi-purpose arena with 12%. While the remaining 5% accounted for auditoriums and rehab centres with 4% each and a military building with 1% (see Figure 1 left). Regarding the number of beds, three states concentrate the vast majority, starting with 44% installed in Mexico, followed by Yucatan with 25% and Veracruz 13% (see Figure 1 right). Five states concentrate the remaining 18% of the installed beds, corresponding to Colima, Chiapas, Jalisco, Nuevo Leon, and San Luis Potosi with 1%, 2%, 4%, 9% and 2% respectively.
It is apparent from Table 2 that building for corporate events & exhibitions centres were the more suitable to be used as hospitals. Interestingly and ironically, this kind of building used to host activities which are currently forbidden due to the pandemic restrictions. The more surprising correlation emerging from the table is that the Yucatan accounted up to 25% of the whole number of installed beds, which has twelve times less population than Mexico City.
Table 2: Architecture infrastructure shifted to hospitals in Mexico
State
Colima
Chiapas
Mexico City
Edo. Mexico
Name
Building 20 in the military zone
Mesoamerican Poliforum
Autodromo Hermanos Rodriguez
Centro City Banamex
Auditorio Tonanitla
Centro de Convenciones y Exposiciones Toluca
Building type
Military building
Multi-purpose arena
Car racetrack
Corporate events & exhibitions
Auditorium
Corporate events & exhibitions
Number of beds
20
40
192
854
100
200
Source
(Vargas and Rodriguez, 2020)
(Ayala, 2020b)
(Aguirre, 2020; Redacción, 2020b)
(Yañez, 2020)
(Ayala, 2020a)
(Ayala, 2020a)
State
Jalisco
Nuevo Leon
San Luis Potosi
Veracruz
Yucatan
Name
Carpa Omnilife
Gym
Feria Nacional Potosina
Velodromo (Jalapa)
Centro de raqueta
Siglo XXI
Valladolid (temporal)
Building type
Corporate events & exhibitions
Rehabilitation centre
Multi-purpose arena
Cycling track arena
Fitness centre
Corporate events & exhibitions
Number of beds
50
100
280
120
180
500
100
Source
(Ayala, 2020b; Rodriguez-Calva, 2020)
(Redaccion Obras, 2020)
(Pacheco, 2020; Redacción, 2020a)
(Redacción, 2020c)
(Leon-Carmona, 2020)
(*jci, 2020; Santana, 2020)
(*jci, 2020)
Figure 1: Building type shifted into hospitals (left), Installed beds by state.
DISCUSSION and conclusion: exaptation of the city as a means to counter pandemics
As mentioned in the literature review, even in the flied of evolutionary theories the concept of exaptation is not widely recognised yet. Besides the work of Gould and Vrba (Gould and Vrba, 1982), Pievani and Serrelli (2011) with their anthropological approach and Tattersal (2010) l with his work in human cognition have paved the way in other fields. Recently, La Porta, Zapperi and Pilotti (2020) discussed the concept of exaptation in different disciplines including biomedicine, physics and materials science, economics, social sciences, computer science and psychology. Consequently, this study is one of the first attempts to use the concept of exaptation in architecture. Regarding the Plan de Reconversion Hospitalaria, one interesting finding is that ironically the places where people used to gather (buildings for corporate events and exhibitions, multi-purpose arena and sport centres) that due to the pandemic were partially or completely closed, are current hospitals for covid-19 patients. A possible explanation for this in terms of architecture might be that such buildings have convenient dimensions and are fully functioning regarding essential installations such as clean water, electricity and air conditioned in order to provide efficient health services. In fact, the World Health Organisation (WHO) has prised Mexican government because of the way it has handled the outbreak, reducing the spread of the disease (Redacción, 2020d) and providing clear information to the population (Redacción Animal Politico, 2020). Moreover, as October 14th Mexico is in the 71th place among other countries in terms of infections per million (Forbes Staff, 2020), while in terms of population is the tenth most populated country worldwide (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020). According to this data, we can infer that the Plan de Reconversion Hospitalaria has been a success as a public health strategy. These results provide further support for the hypothesis that hospitals are key infrastructure in order to increase urban resilience as suggested by McDaniels et al(2008) and Norazam (2018). These findings may help us to understand how by utilising an assemblage thinking approach by having an adequate manage of slow variables such as health infrastructure could help us to withstand external disturbances such a global outbreak. This combination of findings provides some support for the conceptual premise that the term of exaptation could help us to describe architecture and urban phenomena, potentially benefiting applied research.
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